Assessing Imbalances to Plan for Proper Muscular Retraining

Discussion on the importance of targeting the glutes, hamstrings, low back and hip musculature, in regards to improving the sprinting, jumping and throwing performances, has been the focus of the past few Blog posts.  The previous posts focused on the importance of the relative strength balances of these muscle groups and their interdependence upon each other in order to perform the correct movement patterns for sprinting and jumping/bounding. 

Indeed, without the proper strength balances of the all the muscular groups that play a role in optimal postural alignment of the pelvis/low back, improved sprint and jump technical efficiency and performance improvement cannot take place. In addition, the application of training methods targeting speed, power, explosive strength, elastic strength and strength endurance will invite injury to hamstrings, low back, hip flexors, etc.

The Fall training period can be most beneficial if coaches start the training process with a few, simple screening assessments that will point out the various weaknesses of each individual. With this information, coaches can devise individual plans of action that will address the indicated muscular imbalances that predispose the some athletes to injury, lack of technical proficiency or both.  Assigning specific strengthening and stretching exercises for the indicated imbalances can insure that each athlete is building a proper foundation for progression to more advanced strength, power and speed training modes.

The use of “activation” exercises for the glutes, hamstrings, hip flexors, core musculature, etc. can be used to find imbalances and weaknesses of these critical muscle groups.  For example, inability to properly execute a prone leg lift without external or internal rotation of the femur/thigh, can signal weakness of the gluteus maximus,  which has resulted in activation of the external or internal rotators to help with the lifting of the leg. If the athlete cannot lift the leg without the femur/thigh turning outwards (resulting in a flaring inwards of the foot), then that athlete has taught themselves to use the external hip rotators (piriformis) to lift the leg. The result of this type of  muscular imbalance leads to an alteration of biomechanics due to weak (gluteus maximus) AND overactive (piriformis) muscles. This altered pattern will manifest itself in sprint mechanics with a flaring out of the foot in the all phases of the sprint movement.  These learned, altered movement patterns will ultimately cause pain, swelling, dysfunction and eventually lead to joint swelling/pain.

Use of the OVERHEAD SQUAT TEST is one of the most basic full-body, functional tests that you can perform prior to developing a training program. It tests total kinetic-chain neuromuscular efficiency, integrated functional strength, and dynamic flexibility. Unlike the standard clinical tests used by therapists, the OVERHEAD SQUAT TEST involves a degree of muscular fatigue.

The test involves holding an Olympic Bar overhead with an extremely wide grip. The hands should be close to, or right up against, the end of the bar / collar area. The feet should be wider than shoulder width (wider stances for some athletes) with toes pointed straight ahead.  This position is the “end” position of the SNATCH exercise.  From this position, have the athletes squat as low as they can in a controlled/slow movement that is initiated with a backwards “sitting” movement of the hips. This will shift the weight to the heels with emphasis on keeping the heels grounded throughout the entire squat and pause at the bottom. The bar should be held up, with elbows locked out, throughout decent and accent.

The signs that coaches need to look for are : 1) Feet Flatten inwards (pronation), 2) Toes move outwards (external rotation), 3) Knees collapse inward (valgus), 4) Low back arches  (lordosis), 5) arms fall forward, 6) arms flex at the elbows and 7) Chin elevates.

Once these assessments have been recorded it will be possible to find which muscle groups are working incorrectly.

 There are 3 underlying reasons for muscle groups working incorrectly:

1)    A muscle is OVERACTIVE and therefore, constantly tight. This leads to inhibition of it’s opposing muscle (antagonist). The opposing muscle needs to be stretched passively, while the overactive muscle needs to be stretched actively.

2)    The antagonist muscle is being reciprocally inhibited and, therefore, cannot do it’s job sufficiently because it is being stretched (lengthened), making it more difficult to contract (or shorten).

3)    There is also a third muscle involved. This muscle is a secondary muscles trying to do the job for the muscle that is inhibited. This is not that the primary function of the third muscle and therefore the third muscle doesn’t perform the job very well.

As mentioned above, when muscle groups work incorrectly, the athlete develops altered biomechanics to try and compensate and leads to poor performance, loss of strength/power, poor sprint/jump/throw mechanics and, ultimately, to injury.

Using the 7 assessment factors, outlined above, from performance of the OVERHEAD SQUAT TEST, coaches can prescribe protocols for individual athletes to perform, prior to, and after, each training session to RETRAIN THE BODY through introduction of correct mechanics through the use of specific stretching and strengthening exercises.

The retraining plan should follow the recommendations below that are based on the 7 mechanical signs listed above.

Toes move outwards > Passive Stretches for Overactive Muscles= gastrocs, peroneals, piriformis, hamstrings.  Active stretches and Strengthening exercises for gluteus maximus.

Knees Collapse Inwards > Passive stretching of adductors and iliotibial band. Active stretches and Strengthening exercises for gluteus maximus and medius.

Low Back Arches > Passive stretching of ilio-psoas (hip flexors), quads, erector spinae (low back) and latissimus dorsi. Active stretching and Strengthening of gluteus maximus.

Arms fall forward > Passive stretching fo latissimus dorsi. Active stretching and Strengthening of lower Trapezius, teres minor and infraspinatus.

Arms flex at elbows > Passive stretching of pectoralis major and minor. Active stretching and Strengthening of middle Trapezius and Rhomboids.

Chin elevates > Passive stretching of sternocleidomastoid. Active stretching and Strengthening of deep cervical stabilizers ( rear neck musculature).

Strengthening exercises such as Squats, Lunges and Overhead Squats can, in themselves, stretch AND strengthen many of these mechanical deficiencies. In the next Blog post I will provide some thoughts on why selecting various types of squatting exercises, sprint & hurdling mobility exercises and dynamic warm-up activities can minimize time and maximize training aimed at specific development of the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex and the specific strength, power, speed and technique training modes for sprinting, jumping and throwing.

Fall Training: Don't forget to Target the Hamstrings

In the past Blog post I tried to bring attention to the vital aspects of targeting strengthening of the gluteal, low back and core musculature in hopes of actualizing a dual outcome: 1) stronger prime movers for sprinter/jumpers/throwers and 2) elimination of muscular imbalances that can lead to injury.

Teaching athletes how to properly activate the gluteus and low back muscle groups, while also strengthening them, will alleviate the common problem of over-stressing the hamstrings AS most athletes have overloaded their hamstrings to do the work of the gluteus and low back muscles. The root cause of many chronic hamstring problems usually involves 1) postural alignment problems of the pelvis, 2) activation of the hamstrings to do the work of the gluteus group and 3) weaknesses of the hamstrings relative to the stresses of specific movement patterns of sprinting and jumping.

Reviewing common sports injuries will reveal that hamstring strains or pulls are high on the list of reoccurring sports injuries. The hamstring musculature is made up of four muscles in the back of the thigh and can be stretched as you bend forward to touch your toes. Three of the four hamstring muscles, the semitendonosis, semimembranosis and long head of biceps femoris all cross BOTH the hip and knee joints. These three are the true hamstring muscles and have a common origin at the ischial tuberosity (bony protuberance at the bottom of the pelvis). The insertion of these muscles is to the tibia and fibula below the knee (the two leg bones that make up the lower leg). The fourth hamstring muscle (short head of the biceps femoris) only crosses the knee joint. 

There are two primary types of hamstring injuries and each affects a different area of the hamstring musculature. The first hamstring injury is most common in younger athletes and is caused by a sudden motion, such as an explosive jump, sprint or kick. In this type of injury, the strain occurs in the thick belly of the muscle, resulting in pain the middle of the back of the thigh. Swelling, and later bruising, may be present in this area, and the athlete may limp or utilize crutches to take weight off of the injured leg.

Training errors in activities such as cycling and running is the usual cause of the second type of hamstring injury. In this case the hamstring strain occurs at the tendinous insertion on the ischial tuberosity of the pelvis. Tri-athletes, duathletes and long distance runners are common sufferers of this injury, and will complain of pain in the lower buttock region that increases in severity as the foot of the injured leg strikes the ground.

Regardless of the type of hamstring injury, by understanding the biomechanics of running, it becomes easier to understand why hamstring injuries occur and how to prevent them. With BOTH types of injury, preventative strengthening exercises and the teaching of proper activation techniques are effective strategies for prevention.

In simplifying the Biomechanics of Running we can break running down to two phases: 1) the stance phase and 2) the swing phase.  The stance phase consists of the foot-strike, mid-stance and toe-off while the swing phase consists of follow through, hip flexion and hip extension backwards towards the ground. During an eccentric contraction, muscle fibers will slowly elongate to slow down a particular motion, while a concentric contraction involves a muscle shortening to lift and object or move a limb in a particular direction. During leg decent and foot-strike, the pelvis flexes forward and the leg extends and the hamstring muscles are eccentrically contracting to slow down both of these particular movements. When the eccentric load exceeds the strength of the muscles fibers, tearing of the hamstring fibers occurs, resulting in a strain or tear of the fibers.

Flexibility and strength training of the hamstring muscles, and the nearby muscles surrounding the pelvis and thigh, will reduce the risk of injury.

Strengthening the abdominal and gluteus musculature is important in the prevention of the hamstring strain because these muscles aid the hamstrings in decelerating flexion of the pelvis during the heel strike.

Flexibility of the hip flexors and low back musculature is also important in the prevention of hamstring injuries. Tight hip flexors and low back muscles cause excessive flexion of the pelvis during foot-strike and increased tension and stress on the hamstrings. Tightness in these muscles also inhibits strengthening of the gluteus and abdominal muscles.

Proper pelvic alignment is critical to performance of proper sprint and jump mechanics AND in the prevention of hamstring injuries. In the last Blog I emphasized teaching the activation and strengthening of the gluteus and lower back muscles because:  “These two muscle groups are mainly responsible for the sprinter or jumper to be fully engaged and connected from the ground up. “

Postural alignment of the pelvis through a balanced approach to the strengthening of gluteus, low back and hamstring muscle groups is critical in achieving mechanical efficiency for sprinting and jumping movements.

Think of the pelvis as a bucket that is full of water. If we keep it level, no water will spill out. If the pelvis tilts forward (as a result of tight hip flexors and weak low back) then the hamstrings are put on stretch (causing tightness and tension) while the low back curvature is increased (which can cause low back pain, strain and tightness).  Both of these conditions risk immediate injury to the hamstring group while sprinting or jumping.

Researchers looking at full body kinematics and ground reaction force data from athletes while sprinting found that all three major hamstring muscles reached peak strain, produced peak force and formed much negative (eccentric contractions for energy absorption) during terminal swing of the leg.

The biomechanical load differed for each hamstring muscle; Long Head of Biceps Femoris exhibited the largest peak strain, the Semitendinosis displayed the greatest lengthening velocity, and the Semimembranosus produced the highest peak force, absorbed and generated the most power, and performed the largest amount of positive and negative work.

ALL THIS OCCURRED AT THE SAME TIME during terminal leg swing. This indicates that hamstring injury prevention or rehab programs should target strengthening exercises that involve eccentric contractions performed with high loads at longer musculotendon lengths.  If you have my book “Strength and Power for Maximum Speed”, then you already know the key strength exercises that specifically target this.

The next Blog post will address exercise selection criteria for strengthening all the critical muscle groups responsible for improvements in sprinting and jumping performances.

Glutes &Hips and Low Back Strength: The Keys to proper sprint/jump execution

As promised in the last Blog post, this post will emphasize the importance of using the Fall to address postural weaknesses, muscular imbalances and activation techniques for strengthening the muscle groups that are that are vital to proper sprint and jump performance.

A few posts ago I pointed out that…

 “Imbalances in strength should also be addressed in the Fall training period. Without fail, attention to teaching proper activation and development of the glutes will prove highly beneficial.  Plans that contain Squats, Lunges, S.L. Squats, Split Squats, Hip Extension exercises, and Bridge exercises emphasizing glute activation and development are appropriate ways improving glute balance and strength necessary for proper performance of all the speed and power events.”

It should be a “no brainer” to make targeting the muscles of the hip and gluteus group the major focus of strength training.

The gluteus muscle group is the largest and strongest muscle group in the body. Coaches should include some or all of the exercises mentioned in the above paragraph in their strength training programs and emphasize proper lifting technique where the athletes begin the lift flat-footed and drive through the heels. Research has shown that this stimulates activation of the gluteus muscles as well as teaches the athletes to utilize the mechanical stretch-shortening effect of the elastic tissue in the arch, heel, Achilles and gastrocnemius muscle group to produce large amounts of voluntary force in a very short time.

In addition to emphasizing strengthening and proper activation of the gluteus muscle group and foot/ankle mechanics, coaches should target the strengthening of low back/ erector spinae muscles.  The erector spinae muscles are vital to proper postural alignment in both sprinting and jumping.  Bounding, jumping and sprinting demand an upright torso in order for proper performance of all three movement patterns. In addition to building the strength necessary for upright posture to be maintained the three movements, the erector spinae muscles also stimulate the activation of the gluteus muscle groups. These two muscle groups are mainly responsible for the sprinter or jumper to be fully engaged and connected from the ground up.

Teaching athletes to activate their glutes is critical to both strength improvements and the teaching of proper sprinting and jumping mechanics. When athletes are broken at the hip (bent at the waist) they are NOT CONNECTED. This disconnect makes it impossible to activate the glutes for use as the primary “mover” in the sprint or jump movements.

When you have the athletes squeeze their glutes, this action causes the hips to be pushed forward which, in turn, activates the the hip extensors to drive the thigh down and back “into the ground”. Coupled with a dorsiflexed foot/ankle, the forward push of the hips and extension of the hip enables the athlete to engage the glutes and hip extensors early enough to create the horizontal lead and vertical lift (pre-tension of the front side leg) components needed to produce maximum force during a very abreviated ground contact time.

Attention to strengthening the glutes, hip extensors and muscles of the low back should be of primary importance in the Fall Training program. In addition, Core exercises involving rotation, flexion and extension as well as combinations of the three (example:  flexion/rotation as in Chopping movments) are also needed so that the athletes can develop the strength necessary to maintain proper postural alignment during sprinting and jumping movements.

Another important muscle group that must be strengthened and activated correctly in order for sprinting and jumping to be correctly performed is the hamstring group. As with the low back, core and gluteus group, proper activation of the hamstring muscles needs to be taught along with strengthening exercises that are movement specific. In addition, evaluation of pelvic alignment (forward, backward or lateral tilt) is necessary prior to application of strength and activation exercises.

So, that is will be the topic of the next Blog post. I welcome any comments or questions concerning Fall training components

Considerations for Planning Fall Strength Training Methods

I pointed out in a recent Blog on Fall Training that Speed, Strength and Technique are the critical building blocks for improving athletes in sprint/hurdle/jump/throw events.  The problem that most often occurs in the training approaches aimed at Strength development seems to be the rationale for selection of strength training methods. 

Many times coaches select Elastic Strength (plyo exercises) methods that are not appropriate for the basic development of weaker and/or beginning athletes. Perhaps this is because it is easier than having to move to a weight room before or after the track session or lack of a decent weight room. 

 Another problem is the confusion regarding the differences between Explosive Strength, Power and Elastic Strength training. I have also found that Absolute Strength (MaxStrength) tends to be ignored due to all the hype around “functional” or specific-event strength. I know Div. I sprint coaches who believe that slow lifting of heavy weights does not make sense for sprinters whose events require high-speed movements. Really!!!

 So, in considering Strength Development, what types of methods should be employed in Fall Training to best target improvements for all the relevant types of strength/power?

The answer is dependent on the strength levels of the individuals that each coach works with.  Absolute Strength (1 repMax divided by Body Weight) levels of athletes best indicate the type of Elastic Strength, Explosive Strength and Absolute Strength training methods that should be integrated in their Strength Training Plan.

Way back in the 1980’s, when plyometric exercises became the hottest training tool, studies indicated that plyometric training for improving Elastic Strength was best suited for athletes who had Absolute Strength levels equal to, or greater than, 1.5 times their body weight.  Even then, studies seemed to show that there needed to be a certain strength level necessary to perform the plyometric exercises in a manner conducive to improving Elastic Strength. Since then, numerous studies have refined specific methods for developing all the various types of Strength needed for improvement of maximum sprint speed and jumping/throwing performance levels but using the 1.5 x BW is still a good rule of thumb (see the strength levels of strong vs. weak athletes in the studies provided below).

Simply stated, there is a need for a variety of strength training methods to be mixed into the training of speed/power athletes that is based upon the specific strength/power level of each athlete.  The needs of a beginning or weak individual are much different than the needs of advanced, intermediate and high strength level athletes.

Here are the conclusions of two recent studies in regards to performance improvements of sprint speed and jump performance based on Strength Training and/or Power(Jump) Training methods.

  Influence of Strength on Magnitude and Mechanisms of Adaptation to Power Training By:  CORMIE, PRUE; MCGUIGAN, MICHAEL R.; NEWTON, ROBERT U./ Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 42(8):1566-1581, August 2010.

CONCLUSION: The magnitude of improvements after ballistic power training was not significantly influenced by strength level. However, the training had a tendency toward eliciting a more pronounced effect on jump performance in the stronger group. The neuromuscular and biomechanical mechanisms driving performance improvements were very similar for both strong and weak individuals.

What I found to be interesting in the above study was that the 40m sprint performance improvements for the weaker individuals (+3.2%) was greater than the improvements for the stronger individuals (+ 2.2%). Weaker individuals were those whose squat to BW ratio was 1.32 times their body weight while the stronger individuals were those who could squat 1.97 times their body weight.  Coaches should note that improvements in Absolute Strength can be directly related to improvements in sprint speed. It is important to include Absolute Strength training for all strength levels. Of course the volumes and intensities will vary. 

Below is the other study that I found interesting because it pointed out the improvements in Ballistic/Elastic Strength can be attained by weaker athletes with Absolute Strength Training methods alone!!!! 

Adaptations in Athletic Performance after Ballistic Power versus Strength Training

By: CORMIE, PRUE; MCGUIGAN, MICHAEL R.; NEWTON, ROBERT U.

Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 42(8):1582-1598, August 2010

CONCLUSIONS: Improvements in athletic performance were similar in relatively weak individuals exposed to either ballistic power training or heavy strength training for 10 wk. These performance improvements were mediated through neuromuscular adaptations specific to the training stimulus. The ability of strength training to render similar short-term improvements in athletic performance as ballistic power training, coupled with the potential long-term benefits of improved maximal strength, makes strength training a more effective training modality for relatively weak individuals.

 Elastic Strength Training methods require certain levels of mechanical efficiency and  Absolute Strength in regards to the types of exercises utilized. Weaker athletes, in addition to being at risk for injury, do not have the necessary strength levels to perform  advanced plyometric exercises properly. Does it make sense to have young beginning athletes introduced into Elastic Strength Training by having them try to perform double leg bounds over four or five 30” hurdles?

The results of two recent studies discussed above should point to the need for coaches to BEGIN Strength Training of young, beginning and/or weaker athletes by focusing on the development of Absolute Strength in regards to the Squat and Deadlift while also integrating Explosive Strength through “teaching” Clean-Pulls and Clean-Pull Jumps. Elastic Strength Training for these same individuals can begin with “low intensity” IN-Place Jumps with the emphasis on “learning” the “triple-flexed” position and HOW TO LAND properly (dorsiflexed ankles).

Intermediate, Advanced and high strength level athletes, although better served with higher intensity jump exercises, can also greatly benefit from Absolute and Explosive Strength training utilizing higher intensity on the same lifts as the weaker/younger athletes OR learning the more advanced lifts (Cleans, Snatches, Jump Squats, etc.) that are progressions of the basic lifts used with the younger/weaker athletes (Snatch Squat, Squat, Clean Pull, etc.).

Counter Movement Jumps provide the base for progressing to higher height CMJ’s, Continuous Reactive Jumps for 5’, 10”, 15”, Double Leg Bounds, Single Leg Bounds and Speed Bounds. Athletes should only progress to the more intense jumps when technique, improvements in strength and jump test performances indicate they are ready. 

Drop Jumps and Vertical/Horizontal-Rebound Jumps from a Drop should only be planned for advanced level athletes at the end of the Fall or during the Spring. Volumes should be low!

Another important point regarding Strength Training is the fact that female athletes (and weak, young males) derive the greatest benefits from Absolute Strength Development. Females, especially when maturing and gaining weight, have lower strength levels than males and can improve dramatically with strength increases due to improving the power/body weight ratio and the subsequent decreases in  body fat as a result of an increase in lean mass.

The last point that should be mentioned, in relation to “individualization” of strength training methods based on strength levels, is that all neuromuscular adaptations specific to training stimulus can elicit improvements in movement pattern BUT are extremely SHORT TERM in nature for athletes with lower strength levels.  This is why Absolute Strength Training is a more effective modality for the overall development of weaker athletes and also a vital contributor for advanced and intermediate level athletes. Indeed, even elite athletes need to maintain their Absolute Strength because when Absolute Strength drops there is a corresponding drop in Power...even if the athletes are consistent with Elastic Strength training methods.

Next Blog will focus on attending to muscular imbalances and the importance of proper glute activation and correction of postural deficiencies in regards to alleviating potential hamstring injuries.