INTENSIVE TRAINING CONSIDERATIONS

For many Sprint/ Hurdle coaches the late Fall / Early Winter period marks the transition from Extensive Tempo to Intensive Tempo training on Metabolic Training Days. Basic Preparation Periods aim to lay the foundations for both the Speed and Special Endurance Bio-Motor Abilities. Where Speed is the base for Speed (and Speed Endurance), Extensive and Intensive Tempo build the platform for the Special Endurance I, II and Specific Endurance work to be performed in the Competitive Season. It must be noted that the sprint mechanics used during Extensive and Intensive Tempo training are different to those used at Race Velocity. Therefore, both of these methods should be used in conjunction with SPEED training methods where race-speed mechanics are developed. (Alternating Neural Training Days of Speed/Strength/Power training with Metabolic Training Days aimed at Energy System/ Endurance Training. After answering questions regarding Extensive Tempo training methods in my last post I was contacted by coaches asking the following questions: 1) What is the main role of Intensive Tempo training in the late Preparation Training Period of Sprinters/ Hurdlers? Intensive Tempo is the next step up on the Intensity Ladder from Extensive Tempo (behind Speed, Speed Endurance, Special Endurance I,II and Specific Endurance). Thus, Intensive Tempo training serves to bridge the gap between Extensive Tempo and Special Endurance I,II training. Extensive Tempo is employed in the first half, or more, of the Preparation Period to produce high levels of Aerobic Capacity and Aerobic Power at Intensities of 65-75-79%. Development of high levels of both Aerobic Capacity and Aerobic Power best prepare athletes to handle the higher intensity Intensive Tempo work that is aimed at development of Anaerobic Capacity or Lactic Acid Capacity. Intensive Tempo training methods involve use of runs that last 15 seconds up to 90 seconds at intensities between 80-89% OR 75-94% depending on whether you adhere to either the Winckler Energy System Training Chart or the British Sprint Training Methods Classification by Khmel and Lester. Regardless, percentages are best calculated by using each athlete’s 300-325 or 350m Time Trial effort as the 100% value. Calculations using the most recent time trial over a distance taking at least 40 seconds to run at full effort provides coaches with a 100% value from which to calculate each athlete’s 80-89% goal times. These goal times, based on current fitness level/ ability are termed Relative Intensity as the times are relative to each individual’s fitness / ability level. 2) How do you decide the starting volumes for Intensive Tempo sessions when making the transition from Extensive to Intensive Tempo? Whereas total volumes of Extensive Tempo training start around 1,000-1200m and can reach 3,000 - 4,000m over 6-8 weeks of Preparation Period Training, Intensive Tempo should start with total volumes per session of 800-1000m and can reach 1800 to 2800m prior to transitioning to Special Endurance I, II training methods in the Pre-Comp/ Competition Period. True 100-200/ 110HH, 100H type sprinters should aim for volumes starting around 800m and progress no further than 1800-2000m. 400 and 400 Hurdle types should aim for volumes starting around 1,000m and progress no further than 2800m. 3) What are good examples of Intensive Tempo Workouts for 100/200 sprint types? For 400 and 400 Hurdle types? An example of a starting workout for 100/200 sprint types at the beginning of Intensive Tempo training work could involve 4-5 x 200m w/3’ at 85-89% whereas 400m and 400 hurdlers might begin with a session of 5-6 x 300m w/5’ at 80%-89%. Another way of utilizing Intensive Tempo could involve the use of the Clyde Hart Speedmaker Workout where athletes would run 2-3 sets of 4 Speedmakers where athletes accelerate hard over 60m and then relax the next 40m before jogging 50m before the next Speedmaker. These are usually run in sets of 4. Intensive Tempo Training’s primary aim is the development of high levels of Anaerobic Capacity that will enable athletes to progress to both Special Endurance I work, that develops Anerobic Power, and Special Endurance II work that develops Lactic Acid Tolerance. These training methods, sitting highest on the Long Speed Endurance Intensity Ladder, are best prepared for through 4-6 weeks of Intensive Tempo that followed 4-6 weeks of Extensive Tempo. Use of this progression will give athletes the best chance for successful development of high level Lactic Acid Tolerance adaptations.

EXTENSIVE TEMPO TRAINING: A BRIEF OVERVIEW

Since writing and publishing “A Program Design Method for Sprint & Hurdle Training” in 2008 I have consistently received emails with various questions on Training and Design. Two questions that I am frequently asked concern Extensive Tempo. “How does a coach determine how long to use Extensive Tempo before starting Intensive Tempo in the Preparation Period?” “How do you determine the volume and intensity levels for Extensive and Intensive Tempo training when coaching a group with many levels of ability?” First, and foremost, coaches must not lose sight of the fact that the development of Maximum Speed should be the primary objective of sprint training throughout the entire year. Therefore, at least 1-2 days of Neural Training per week should be devoted specifically to working on maximum speed development over distances of 10m - 60m in the Preparation Period. Coaches must focus on developing proper sprint mechanics through drills, accelerations of 15-40 meters and short sprint work over 10-40m, with the objective of developing technical proficiency, before lengthening the sprint distances or applying any type of Speed Endurance Work (between 7 and 15 seconds). Metabolic Training, focusing on development of Aerobic Capacity and Aerobic Power are best suited for days following Neural Training days. Extensive Tempo should be the primary tool for developing both Aerobic Capacity and Aerobic Power. This Energy System Training, at lower intensities, allows the CNS to recover from the previous day’s high intensity Speed & Strength training. Thus, the sequence of training days during the Preparation Period should follow a plan where Maximum Speed training and Strength training (General, Absolute, Elastic, Explosive) are included on the same days (with Speed first) and followed by days of Metabolic Training where Aerobic Power and/or Aerobic Capacity development are developed through use of Extensive Tempo Training methods. Following the Energy System Breakdown Chart for Sprint Events, presented by Gary Winckler in his Classifications of Energy Systems for Sprint Training, would break Extensive Tempo work into two categories: 1) Extensive Tempo Training for Aerobic Capacity with repetitions at distances of 200m or greater (up to 600m) at 60%-69% or 70-79% of Predicted 200/400 times with recovery of 45” or less between reps and 2’ or less between sets. Total volume of distance should be between 1400 - 3,000 for 100m sprinters, 1800-3,000m for 200m sprinters and 2,400-4,000m for 400 and 400H sprinters. 2) Extensive Tempo Training for Aerobic Power at distances of 100m to 300m at 70-79% of Predicted 200/400 times with recovery of 30”-90” between reps and 2’-3’ between sets. Total volume of distance should be between 1400-1800m for 100 sprinters, 1800-2400m for 200 sprinters, and 1800-2800m for 400 sprinters. Following the Classifying Sprint Training Methods by Michael Khmel and Tony Lester of the UK you will find slightly different percentages. Khmel and Lester consider runs of 100-600m at less than 75% to be the intensity level for Extensive Tempo with rests of 15-90 seconds between reps and 3-4 minutes between reps. Thus, the less than 75% intensity encompasses training for either Aerobic Capacity (selecting intensities at 69% or less) or Aerobic Power (selecting intensities between 70-75%). I prefer to use the Winckler Classification chart as it gives relative total volume ranges in meters according to three event types (100, 200, and 400-400Hurdler) of athletes. The total volumes listed on this chart MAY NOT be applicable to 14-16 year old beginning track athletes. In my experience, 1,000 to 1,200m of total Extensive Tempo work best represents a reasonable starting point for beginning sprinters and intermediate level sprinters whose fitness level is presently low. I would recommend that high school coaches plan on starting Extensive Tempo Training with 1,000-1,200m of total volume as a general target and use the guidelines below to determine individual intensities and volumes. DETERMINING VOLUMES AND INTENSITIES FOR INDIVIDUALIZED EXTENSIVE TEMPO TRAINING PROGRESSIONS A) Employ a method of assessment that will provide a reasonable indicator of Special Endurance (300m Time Trial) and Speed Endurance (120-150m Time Trial) FOR EACH ATHLETE. Use those times as 100% values from which to calculate 60-69%(300m T.T.) and 70%-79% (150m T.T.).This will give Relative Intensity values for each individual based on their current fitness levels. Use the 70-79% calculations for the 300m T.T. as goal times for Extensive Tempo Workouts where runs above 250m are used to develop Aerobic Capacity. Use the 70-79% calculations for the 150m T.T. as goal times for Extensive Tempo Workouts where runs of 100 to 200m are used to develop Aerobic Power. These goal times should be used as a starting point intensity that is relative to each individual’s current training level. Athletes should be able to perform the repetitions of runs for the workouts within the 60-69% (reps of 300m-600m) or 70-79%(reps of 100-300m) range using the recommended rest intervals as mentioned above. Once they cannot finish a rep run in the required 60-69% or 70-79% range, their workout should be terminated and total volume of work recorded. In this manner, coaches can find the starting points for BOTH Intensity (speeds equalling 60-69% of current 300m T.T. and 70-79% of current 150m T.T. levels) and Volume (total amount of meters successfully covered by each athlete at 60-69% and/or 70-79% intensities specific to the rep distances used). The Volume is determined by how much of the planned starting volume (1,000m to 1,200m or slightly more) that could be successfully completed. Successful completion would require individuals to complete the reps within the calculated % time, with the recommended rest intervals, WHILE also displaying proper Sprint Posture and Mechanics. B) Attainment of proper Sprint Posture and Mechanics must be the number one priority. Once an athlete cannot maintain proper posture and sprint mechanics, their workout should STOP. Whatever volume in total meters that they were able to complete with good posture and mechanics should be recorded as their starting point EVEN IF THEY STILL FINISHED WITHIN THEIR 70-79% RANGE for that particular rep!!! It is of no value to allow athletes to continue a workout when they can no longer perform correct sprint movement patterns or maintain correct posture. Advanced level athletes can be given a higher total volume to begin training, but it is better to start out with volumes slightly below what they COULD handle if given the chance. Once the individual starting points total training session volumes of Extensive Tempo have been established, it is up to the coach to manage the weekly progression of adding volume on an individual basis. This is the “Art” of “Managing” training. Using the number of weeks available for the Preparation Training Period AND the volume ranges as mentioned under #2 above (roughly 3,000m for 100/200 types and 4,000m for 400/400h types), coaches can plan weekly increases of 100-200m per session from each individual’s starting point. EXAMPLE HYPOTHETICAL PLAN FOR 8 INDIVIDUALS I will explain how to design a plan using the variables below as an example of one of many ways to design and manage Extensive Tempo Training progressions for the 8 different athletes. The variables to be used are listed below and might be representative of a high school situation where they are allowed to start training at the start of January with the first Competition slated the second week of March. Thus, eight weeks of Prep and two + weeks before the opening Meet. Variables for Training Program Design and Training Management Consideration Preparation Training Period Length: = 8 weeks Pre-Competition Period Length that follows the Preparation Period: = 4 weeks Event Types and levels of athletes: A) 2 beginning athletes who are training for 400/ 300H or 400H B) 1 intermediate athlete training for 300h or 400h C) 2 advanced athletes training for 400m D) 2 beginning athletes that are training for 100/200 E) 1 advanced athlete that is training for 100/200 Each athlete’s (1-8) Time Trial results are presented below. 150m Test Times / 300m Test Times 1) 17.1/38.3 3) 17.3/39.1 4) 18.3/39.9, 5) 18.4/40.1, 6) 18.5/40.2, 7) 18.7/43.2, 8) 19.3/43.8, 9) 19.5/44.9 For example purposes I will calculate “starting point” time ranges for athlete #1. These ranges are calculated by taking the test times for Time Trials over 150m and 300m and dividing the 150 time by 70 and 75 for Ext. Tempo (Aerobic Power) training reps using 100-200m distances. In the same manner, divide the 300 time by 65 and 69% for Ext. Tempo (Aerobic Capacity) training reps using 300 - 600m distances. Athlete #1: 70-75% range for 17.1/150 = 22.8”-24.4”range for 150m reps. 15.2”-16.3” range for 100m reps. 30.4”-32.5” range for 200m reps 65-69% range for 38.3/300 = 55.6”-58.9” range for 300m reps 64.9”-68.7” range for 350m reps 74.2”-78.5” range for 400m reps 92.8”-97.5” range for 500m reps Once the 65-69% of the 300 Test time and 70-75% of 150 Test time have been calculated (1710 divided by 70 = 24.43 rounded to 24.4) you can use these time ranges to calculate equivalent velocities for ANY distance you wish the athletes to run by simply doing a basic equation for equalities > > 24.4/150 = ?/200. Multiply the known time (24.4) x the desired distance (200m) (24.4 x 200) = 4886. Now, divide this number by the distance under the known time (150m) to get 32.57 (rounded to 32.5”). Thus, 24.4 for 150 = 32.5 for 200. Calculating the ranges for each desired distance will give you the “starting point” repetition times for each athlete that should be within their “relative intensity” levels for each type of Extensive Tempo (Aerobic Capacity & Aerobic Power) Training method. Now that the starting point time goals for athlete #1 have been established, it is up to the coach to determine the starting point total volume/ session for that athlete. As I pointed out in “A” above, my experience with high school athletes has indicated a “conservative” and safe starting point for volume is somewhere between 1,000 and 1,200 meters for 100>200m rep workouts and 1,200-1,400 meters for 250>600m rep workouts. Once you have the athletes complete the first session of each type of Tempo workout (100>200m range at 70-75% of 150 T.T. AND 250>600m range at 65-69% of 300 T.T.) using the guidelines I outlined in “A” & “B” above, which were as follows: A) Once they cannot finish a rep run in the required 60-69% or 70-79% range, their workout should be terminated and total volume of work recorded. B)Once an athlete cannot maintain proper posture and sprint mechanics, their workout should STOP. Whatever volume in total meters that they were able to complete with good posture and mechanics should be recorded as their starting point EVEN IF THEY STILL FINISHED WITHIN THEIR 70-79% RANGE for that particular rep!!! So, after the first session of either Tempo workout, all athletes should have established their individual starting point for total volume. For example, a beginning athlete was given 1,000m (2x5x100) at 70-75% as their starting point but their posture and sprint mechanics deteriorated during the 3rd 100 of the second set even though they finished within their calculated time range, then their individual starting volume would be recorded as 800m. If an advanced athlete was given 1,200m (2x6x100) at 70-75% as their starting point and completed the 9 x 100 with good posture and mechanics but failed to finish the 9th 100 rep within their calculated time range because of fatigue, then their individual starting volume would be recorded as 900m. I personally like to plan for two Energy System Training Days per week in the initial blocks of the Preparation Period. One day for training Aerobic Capacity (using longer reps from 250-600m at 65-69% of each individual’s 300m T.T.) and one day training Aerobic Power (using shorter reps from 100 -200m at 70-75% of each individual’s 150m T.T.). So, my first week’s two Energy System Training Days might look like the examples below: Day One: Aerobic Power (70-75% of each individual’s 150m T.T.): Total Planned Volume: 1,000-1,200m (beginning or low level athletes = 1,000m and advanced or higher level athletes = 1,200) with rests of 30”/100, 45”/150, 1’/200 and 3’/sets. Beginning level/ low fitness athletes > 100 + 100 + 100 150 + 100 + 100 100 + 100 + 150 Advanced level/ high fitness athletes > 100 + 100 + 150 200 + 100 +150 150 + 100 + 150 Day Two: Aerobic Capacity (65-69% of each individual’s 300m T.T.): Total Planned Volume: 1,200-1,400m (beginning or low level athletes = 1,200m and advanced or higher level athletes = 1,400m) with rests of 30”/200, 45”/250-350 and 3’/sets. Beginning level/ low fitness athletes > 200 + 200 + 200 200 + 200+ 200 Advanced level/ high fitness athletes >300 + 250 + 250 350 + 250 OR > 350 + 300 + 250 + 250 +250 Using the above week’s 2 training sessions as a starting point, let’s say that 6 of the 8 athletes finished the planned volume in their calculated time ranges, with proper posture & sprint mechanics and within the planned rest intervals on Day One. Two athletes were stopped before the end of the workout (one advanced and one beginner). The beginning athlete was stopped because of failing sprint mechanics/ posture while the advanced athlete was stopped do to the inability to finish within his/her calculated time range. The beginner did not do the last 150m rep resulting in a total volume of 850m. The advanced athlete, likewise, did not do the last 150m rep resulting in a total volume of 1,050m. The planned progression of volume per week for this example program is 200m / session. That would allow for this type of progression over a 6 week period to reach 2,200-2,400m which almost reaches the top end of the recommended total volume range for Aerobic Power workouts when using the Winckler Energy System Classifying Chart. So, in Week Two, the Volume for Day One for 6 athletes would be 1,200-1,400m (+200 added to the previous week’s volume). The two athletes who did not successfully complete the first week’s work would have 200m added to the volume they successfully completed in Week One (850 + 200=1050m and 1050 +200=1,250). Using this same method for progressing each athlete’s volume per week for the first SIX weeks of the Example 8 Week Prep Period might see week’s where more athletes do not complete the planned total volume and, therefore, there might be differences in total volumes each week for 2-5 or more of the 8 athletes. This allows for individualization to occur so that both volume and intensity are relative to each individual’s talents, adaptation times and/ or changing fitness levels. The last two weeks of the Prep Period and the four weeks of Pre-Comp Period can be used to shift into Intensive Tempo work with longer rests and faster (80-90% of relative times for 150 and 300). This allows for Extensive Tempo (first 6 weeks of Prep Phase) to sequentially and progressively prepare the athletes for the higher intensity Intensive Tempo work (last 2 weeks of Prep Phase and first 2-4 weeks of Pre Comp Phase) that provides the foundation for the Special Endurance I & II(Lactate Tolerance and Lactic Acid Capacity) work to be done in the Competition Period.

Assessing Imbalances to Plan for Proper Muscular Retraining

Discussion on the importance of targeting the glutes, hamstrings, low back and hip musculature, in regards to improving the sprinting, jumping and throwing performances, has been the focus of the past few Blog posts.  The previous posts focused on the importance of the relative strength balances of these muscle groups and their interdependence upon each other in order to perform the correct movement patterns for sprinting and jumping/bounding. 

Indeed, without the proper strength balances of the all the muscular groups that play a role in optimal postural alignment of the pelvis/low back, improved sprint and jump technical efficiency and performance improvement cannot take place. In addition, the application of training methods targeting speed, power, explosive strength, elastic strength and strength endurance will invite injury to hamstrings, low back, hip flexors, etc.

The Fall training period can be most beneficial if coaches start the training process with a few, simple screening assessments that will point out the various weaknesses of each individual. With this information, coaches can devise individual plans of action that will address the indicated muscular imbalances that predispose the some athletes to injury, lack of technical proficiency or both.  Assigning specific strengthening and stretching exercises for the indicated imbalances can insure that each athlete is building a proper foundation for progression to more advanced strength, power and speed training modes.

The use of “activation” exercises for the glutes, hamstrings, hip flexors, core musculature, etc. can be used to find imbalances and weaknesses of these critical muscle groups.  For example, inability to properly execute a prone leg lift without external or internal rotation of the femur/thigh, can signal weakness of the gluteus maximus,  which has resulted in activation of the external or internal rotators to help with the lifting of the leg. If the athlete cannot lift the leg without the femur/thigh turning outwards (resulting in a flaring inwards of the foot), then that athlete has taught themselves to use the external hip rotators (piriformis) to lift the leg. The result of this type of  muscular imbalance leads to an alteration of biomechanics due to weak (gluteus maximus) AND overactive (piriformis) muscles. This altered pattern will manifest itself in sprint mechanics with a flaring out of the foot in the all phases of the sprint movement.  These learned, altered movement patterns will ultimately cause pain, swelling, dysfunction and eventually lead to joint swelling/pain.

Use of the OVERHEAD SQUAT TEST is one of the most basic full-body, functional tests that you can perform prior to developing a training program. It tests total kinetic-chain neuromuscular efficiency, integrated functional strength, and dynamic flexibility. Unlike the standard clinical tests used by therapists, the OVERHEAD SQUAT TEST involves a degree of muscular fatigue.

The test involves holding an Olympic Bar overhead with an extremely wide grip. The hands should be close to, or right up against, the end of the bar / collar area. The feet should be wider than shoulder width (wider stances for some athletes) with toes pointed straight ahead.  This position is the “end” position of the SNATCH exercise.  From this position, have the athletes squat as low as they can in a controlled/slow movement that is initiated with a backwards “sitting” movement of the hips. This will shift the weight to the heels with emphasis on keeping the heels grounded throughout the entire squat and pause at the bottom. The bar should be held up, with elbows locked out, throughout decent and accent.

The signs that coaches need to look for are : 1) Feet Flatten inwards (pronation), 2) Toes move outwards (external rotation), 3) Knees collapse inward (valgus), 4) Low back arches  (lordosis), 5) arms fall forward, 6) arms flex at the elbows and 7) Chin elevates.

Once these assessments have been recorded it will be possible to find which muscle groups are working incorrectly.

 There are 3 underlying reasons for muscle groups working incorrectly:

1)    A muscle is OVERACTIVE and therefore, constantly tight. This leads to inhibition of it’s opposing muscle (antagonist). The opposing muscle needs to be stretched passively, while the overactive muscle needs to be stretched actively.

2)    The antagonist muscle is being reciprocally inhibited and, therefore, cannot do it’s job sufficiently because it is being stretched (lengthened), making it more difficult to contract (or shorten).

3)    There is also a third muscle involved. This muscle is a secondary muscles trying to do the job for the muscle that is inhibited. This is not that the primary function of the third muscle and therefore the third muscle doesn’t perform the job very well.

As mentioned above, when muscle groups work incorrectly, the athlete develops altered biomechanics to try and compensate and leads to poor performance, loss of strength/power, poor sprint/jump/throw mechanics and, ultimately, to injury.

Using the 7 assessment factors, outlined above, from performance of the OVERHEAD SQUAT TEST, coaches can prescribe protocols for individual athletes to perform, prior to, and after, each training session to RETRAIN THE BODY through introduction of correct mechanics through the use of specific stretching and strengthening exercises.

The retraining plan should follow the recommendations below that are based on the 7 mechanical signs listed above.

Toes move outwards > Passive Stretches for Overactive Muscles= gastrocs, peroneals, piriformis, hamstrings.  Active stretches and Strengthening exercises for gluteus maximus.

Knees Collapse Inwards > Passive stretching of adductors and iliotibial band. Active stretches and Strengthening exercises for gluteus maximus and medius.

Low Back Arches > Passive stretching of ilio-psoas (hip flexors), quads, erector spinae (low back) and latissimus dorsi. Active stretching and Strengthening of gluteus maximus.

Arms fall forward > Passive stretching fo latissimus dorsi. Active stretching and Strengthening of lower Trapezius, teres minor and infraspinatus.

Arms flex at elbows > Passive stretching of pectoralis major and minor. Active stretching and Strengthening of middle Trapezius and Rhomboids.

Chin elevates > Passive stretching of sternocleidomastoid. Active stretching and Strengthening of deep cervical stabilizers ( rear neck musculature).

Strengthening exercises such as Squats, Lunges and Overhead Squats can, in themselves, stretch AND strengthen many of these mechanical deficiencies. In the next Blog post I will provide some thoughts on why selecting various types of squatting exercises, sprint & hurdling mobility exercises and dynamic warm-up activities can minimize time and maximize training aimed at specific development of the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex and the specific strength, power, speed and technique training modes for sprinting, jumping and throwing.

Fall Training: Don't forget to Target the Hamstrings

In the past Blog post I tried to bring attention to the vital aspects of targeting strengthening of the gluteal, low back and core musculature in hopes of actualizing a dual outcome: 1) stronger prime movers for sprinter/jumpers/throwers and 2) elimination of muscular imbalances that can lead to injury.

Teaching athletes how to properly activate the gluteus and low back muscle groups, while also strengthening them, will alleviate the common problem of over-stressing the hamstrings AS most athletes have overloaded their hamstrings to do the work of the gluteus and low back muscles. The root cause of many chronic hamstring problems usually involves 1) postural alignment problems of the pelvis, 2) activation of the hamstrings to do the work of the gluteus group and 3) weaknesses of the hamstrings relative to the stresses of specific movement patterns of sprinting and jumping.

Reviewing common sports injuries will reveal that hamstring strains or pulls are high on the list of reoccurring sports injuries. The hamstring musculature is made up of four muscles in the back of the thigh and can be stretched as you bend forward to touch your toes. Three of the four hamstring muscles, the semitendonosis, semimembranosis and long head of biceps femoris all cross BOTH the hip and knee joints. These three are the true hamstring muscles and have a common origin at the ischial tuberosity (bony protuberance at the bottom of the pelvis). The insertion of these muscles is to the tibia and fibula below the knee (the two leg bones that make up the lower leg). The fourth hamstring muscle (short head of the biceps femoris) only crosses the knee joint. 

There are two primary types of hamstring injuries and each affects a different area of the hamstring musculature. The first hamstring injury is most common in younger athletes and is caused by a sudden motion, such as an explosive jump, sprint or kick. In this type of injury, the strain occurs in the thick belly of the muscle, resulting in pain the middle of the back of the thigh. Swelling, and later bruising, may be present in this area, and the athlete may limp or utilize crutches to take weight off of the injured leg.

Training errors in activities such as cycling and running is the usual cause of the second type of hamstring injury. In this case the hamstring strain occurs at the tendinous insertion on the ischial tuberosity of the pelvis. Tri-athletes, duathletes and long distance runners are common sufferers of this injury, and will complain of pain in the lower buttock region that increases in severity as the foot of the injured leg strikes the ground.

Regardless of the type of hamstring injury, by understanding the biomechanics of running, it becomes easier to understand why hamstring injuries occur and how to prevent them. With BOTH types of injury, preventative strengthening exercises and the teaching of proper activation techniques are effective strategies for prevention.

In simplifying the Biomechanics of Running we can break running down to two phases: 1) the stance phase and 2) the swing phase.  The stance phase consists of the foot-strike, mid-stance and toe-off while the swing phase consists of follow through, hip flexion and hip extension backwards towards the ground. During an eccentric contraction, muscle fibers will slowly elongate to slow down a particular motion, while a concentric contraction involves a muscle shortening to lift and object or move a limb in a particular direction. During leg decent and foot-strike, the pelvis flexes forward and the leg extends and the hamstring muscles are eccentrically contracting to slow down both of these particular movements. When the eccentric load exceeds the strength of the muscles fibers, tearing of the hamstring fibers occurs, resulting in a strain or tear of the fibers.

Flexibility and strength training of the hamstring muscles, and the nearby muscles surrounding the pelvis and thigh, will reduce the risk of injury.

Strengthening the abdominal and gluteus musculature is important in the prevention of the hamstring strain because these muscles aid the hamstrings in decelerating flexion of the pelvis during the heel strike.

Flexibility of the hip flexors and low back musculature is also important in the prevention of hamstring injuries. Tight hip flexors and low back muscles cause excessive flexion of the pelvis during foot-strike and increased tension and stress on the hamstrings. Tightness in these muscles also inhibits strengthening of the gluteus and abdominal muscles.

Proper pelvic alignment is critical to performance of proper sprint and jump mechanics AND in the prevention of hamstring injuries. In the last Blog I emphasized teaching the activation and strengthening of the gluteus and lower back muscles because:  “These two muscle groups are mainly responsible for the sprinter or jumper to be fully engaged and connected from the ground up. “

Postural alignment of the pelvis through a balanced approach to the strengthening of gluteus, low back and hamstring muscle groups is critical in achieving mechanical efficiency for sprinting and jumping movements.

Think of the pelvis as a bucket that is full of water. If we keep it level, no water will spill out. If the pelvis tilts forward (as a result of tight hip flexors and weak low back) then the hamstrings are put on stretch (causing tightness and tension) while the low back curvature is increased (which can cause low back pain, strain and tightness).  Both of these conditions risk immediate injury to the hamstring group while sprinting or jumping.

Researchers looking at full body kinematics and ground reaction force data from athletes while sprinting found that all three major hamstring muscles reached peak strain, produced peak force and formed much negative (eccentric contractions for energy absorption) during terminal swing of the leg.

The biomechanical load differed for each hamstring muscle; Long Head of Biceps Femoris exhibited the largest peak strain, the Semitendinosis displayed the greatest lengthening velocity, and the Semimembranosus produced the highest peak force, absorbed and generated the most power, and performed the largest amount of positive and negative work.

ALL THIS OCCURRED AT THE SAME TIME during terminal leg swing. This indicates that hamstring injury prevention or rehab programs should target strengthening exercises that involve eccentric contractions performed with high loads at longer musculotendon lengths.  If you have my book “Strength and Power for Maximum Speed”, then you already know the key strength exercises that specifically target this.

The next Blog post will address exercise selection criteria for strengthening all the critical muscle groups responsible for improvements in sprinting and jumping performances.

Glutes &Hips and Low Back Strength: The Keys to proper sprint/jump execution

As promised in the last Blog post, this post will emphasize the importance of using the Fall to address postural weaknesses, muscular imbalances and activation techniques for strengthening the muscle groups that are that are vital to proper sprint and jump performance.

A few posts ago I pointed out that…

 “Imbalances in strength should also be addressed in the Fall training period. Without fail, attention to teaching proper activation and development of the glutes will prove highly beneficial.  Plans that contain Squats, Lunges, S.L. Squats, Split Squats, Hip Extension exercises, and Bridge exercises emphasizing glute activation and development are appropriate ways improving glute balance and strength necessary for proper performance of all the speed and power events.”

It should be a “no brainer” to make targeting the muscles of the hip and gluteus group the major focus of strength training.

The gluteus muscle group is the largest and strongest muscle group in the body. Coaches should include some or all of the exercises mentioned in the above paragraph in their strength training programs and emphasize proper lifting technique where the athletes begin the lift flat-footed and drive through the heels. Research has shown that this stimulates activation of the gluteus muscles as well as teaches the athletes to utilize the mechanical stretch-shortening effect of the elastic tissue in the arch, heel, Achilles and gastrocnemius muscle group to produce large amounts of voluntary force in a very short time.

In addition to emphasizing strengthening and proper activation of the gluteus muscle group and foot/ankle mechanics, coaches should target the strengthening of low back/ erector spinae muscles.  The erector spinae muscles are vital to proper postural alignment in both sprinting and jumping.  Bounding, jumping and sprinting demand an upright torso in order for proper performance of all three movement patterns. In addition to building the strength necessary for upright posture to be maintained the three movements, the erector spinae muscles also stimulate the activation of the gluteus muscle groups. These two muscle groups are mainly responsible for the sprinter or jumper to be fully engaged and connected from the ground up.

Teaching athletes to activate their glutes is critical to both strength improvements and the teaching of proper sprinting and jumping mechanics. When athletes are broken at the hip (bent at the waist) they are NOT CONNECTED. This disconnect makes it impossible to activate the glutes for use as the primary “mover” in the sprint or jump movements.

When you have the athletes squeeze their glutes, this action causes the hips to be pushed forward which, in turn, activates the the hip extensors to drive the thigh down and back “into the ground”. Coupled with a dorsiflexed foot/ankle, the forward push of the hips and extension of the hip enables the athlete to engage the glutes and hip extensors early enough to create the horizontal lead and vertical lift (pre-tension of the front side leg) components needed to produce maximum force during a very abreviated ground contact time.

Attention to strengthening the glutes, hip extensors and muscles of the low back should be of primary importance in the Fall Training program. In addition, Core exercises involving rotation, flexion and extension as well as combinations of the three (example:  flexion/rotation as in Chopping movments) are also needed so that the athletes can develop the strength necessary to maintain proper postural alignment during sprinting and jumping movements.

Another important muscle group that must be strengthened and activated correctly in order for sprinting and jumping to be correctly performed is the hamstring group. As with the low back, core and gluteus group, proper activation of the hamstring muscles needs to be taught along with strengthening exercises that are movement specific. In addition, evaluation of pelvic alignment (forward, backward or lateral tilt) is necessary prior to application of strength and activation exercises.

So, that is will be the topic of the next Blog post. I welcome any comments or questions concerning Fall training components

Considerations for Planning Fall Strength Training Methods

I pointed out in a recent Blog on Fall Training that Speed, Strength and Technique are the critical building blocks for improving athletes in sprint/hurdle/jump/throw events.  The problem that most often occurs in the training approaches aimed at Strength development seems to be the rationale for selection of strength training methods. 

Many times coaches select Elastic Strength (plyo exercises) methods that are not appropriate for the basic development of weaker and/or beginning athletes. Perhaps this is because it is easier than having to move to a weight room before or after the track session or lack of a decent weight room. 

 Another problem is the confusion regarding the differences between Explosive Strength, Power and Elastic Strength training. I have also found that Absolute Strength (MaxStrength) tends to be ignored due to all the hype around “functional” or specific-event strength. I know Div. I sprint coaches who believe that slow lifting of heavy weights does not make sense for sprinters whose events require high-speed movements. Really!!!

 So, in considering Strength Development, what types of methods should be employed in Fall Training to best target improvements for all the relevant types of strength/power?

The answer is dependent on the strength levels of the individuals that each coach works with.  Absolute Strength (1 repMax divided by Body Weight) levels of athletes best indicate the type of Elastic Strength, Explosive Strength and Absolute Strength training methods that should be integrated in their Strength Training Plan.

Way back in the 1980’s, when plyometric exercises became the hottest training tool, studies indicated that plyometric training for improving Elastic Strength was best suited for athletes who had Absolute Strength levels equal to, or greater than, 1.5 times their body weight.  Even then, studies seemed to show that there needed to be a certain strength level necessary to perform the plyometric exercises in a manner conducive to improving Elastic Strength. Since then, numerous studies have refined specific methods for developing all the various types of Strength needed for improvement of maximum sprint speed and jumping/throwing performance levels but using the 1.5 x BW is still a good rule of thumb (see the strength levels of strong vs. weak athletes in the studies provided below).

Simply stated, there is a need for a variety of strength training methods to be mixed into the training of speed/power athletes that is based upon the specific strength/power level of each athlete.  The needs of a beginning or weak individual are much different than the needs of advanced, intermediate and high strength level athletes.

Here are the conclusions of two recent studies in regards to performance improvements of sprint speed and jump performance based on Strength Training and/or Power(Jump) Training methods.

  Influence of Strength on Magnitude and Mechanisms of Adaptation to Power Training By:  CORMIE, PRUE; MCGUIGAN, MICHAEL R.; NEWTON, ROBERT U./ Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 42(8):1566-1581, August 2010.

CONCLUSION: The magnitude of improvements after ballistic power training was not significantly influenced by strength level. However, the training had a tendency toward eliciting a more pronounced effect on jump performance in the stronger group. The neuromuscular and biomechanical mechanisms driving performance improvements were very similar for both strong and weak individuals.

What I found to be interesting in the above study was that the 40m sprint performance improvements for the weaker individuals (+3.2%) was greater than the improvements for the stronger individuals (+ 2.2%). Weaker individuals were those whose squat to BW ratio was 1.32 times their body weight while the stronger individuals were those who could squat 1.97 times their body weight.  Coaches should note that improvements in Absolute Strength can be directly related to improvements in sprint speed. It is important to include Absolute Strength training for all strength levels. Of course the volumes and intensities will vary. 

Below is the other study that I found interesting because it pointed out the improvements in Ballistic/Elastic Strength can be attained by weaker athletes with Absolute Strength Training methods alone!!!! 

Adaptations in Athletic Performance after Ballistic Power versus Strength Training

By: CORMIE, PRUE; MCGUIGAN, MICHAEL R.; NEWTON, ROBERT U.

Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 42(8):1582-1598, August 2010

CONCLUSIONS: Improvements in athletic performance were similar in relatively weak individuals exposed to either ballistic power training or heavy strength training for 10 wk. These performance improvements were mediated through neuromuscular adaptations specific to the training stimulus. The ability of strength training to render similar short-term improvements in athletic performance as ballistic power training, coupled with the potential long-term benefits of improved maximal strength, makes strength training a more effective training modality for relatively weak individuals.

 Elastic Strength Training methods require certain levels of mechanical efficiency and  Absolute Strength in regards to the types of exercises utilized. Weaker athletes, in addition to being at risk for injury, do not have the necessary strength levels to perform  advanced plyometric exercises properly. Does it make sense to have young beginning athletes introduced into Elastic Strength Training by having them try to perform double leg bounds over four or five 30” hurdles?

The results of two recent studies discussed above should point to the need for coaches to BEGIN Strength Training of young, beginning and/or weaker athletes by focusing on the development of Absolute Strength in regards to the Squat and Deadlift while also integrating Explosive Strength through “teaching” Clean-Pulls and Clean-Pull Jumps. Elastic Strength Training for these same individuals can begin with “low intensity” IN-Place Jumps with the emphasis on “learning” the “triple-flexed” position and HOW TO LAND properly (dorsiflexed ankles).

Intermediate, Advanced and high strength level athletes, although better served with higher intensity jump exercises, can also greatly benefit from Absolute and Explosive Strength training utilizing higher intensity on the same lifts as the weaker/younger athletes OR learning the more advanced lifts (Cleans, Snatches, Jump Squats, etc.) that are progressions of the basic lifts used with the younger/weaker athletes (Snatch Squat, Squat, Clean Pull, etc.).

Counter Movement Jumps provide the base for progressing to higher height CMJ’s, Continuous Reactive Jumps for 5’, 10”, 15”, Double Leg Bounds, Single Leg Bounds and Speed Bounds. Athletes should only progress to the more intense jumps when technique, improvements in strength and jump test performances indicate they are ready. 

Drop Jumps and Vertical/Horizontal-Rebound Jumps from a Drop should only be planned for advanced level athletes at the end of the Fall or during the Spring. Volumes should be low!

Another important point regarding Strength Training is the fact that female athletes (and weak, young males) derive the greatest benefits from Absolute Strength Development. Females, especially when maturing and gaining weight, have lower strength levels than males and can improve dramatically with strength increases due to improving the power/body weight ratio and the subsequent decreases in  body fat as a result of an increase in lean mass.

The last point that should be mentioned, in relation to “individualization” of strength training methods based on strength levels, is that all neuromuscular adaptations specific to training stimulus can elicit improvements in movement pattern BUT are extremely SHORT TERM in nature for athletes with lower strength levels.  This is why Absolute Strength Training is a more effective modality for the overall development of weaker athletes and also a vital contributor for advanced and intermediate level athletes. Indeed, even elite athletes need to maintain their Absolute Strength because when Absolute Strength drops there is a corresponding drop in Power...even if the athletes are consistent with Elastic Strength training methods.

Next Blog will focus on attending to muscular imbalances and the importance of proper glute activation and correction of postural deficiencies in regards to alleviating potential hamstring injuries.

SELECTING STARTING POINTS THROUGH TESTING

In my last blog I mentioned I would cover some circuit exercises for throwers as well as selection of testing methods for performance indicators for all athletes. It is best to test all the athletes prior to the start of training because their nervous systems will be fresh. This is important because most explosive strength and power levels will lag behind the training methods that are used to improve them. This is a phenomenon that sometimes develops a negative attitude towards training as athletes assume that, since they are training to improve their power and explosive strength, they will continue to see their test indicators go up. Endurance and Speed indicators can, and should, improve during the Fall, whereas Power and Explosive Strength will tend to go down or stagnate. This is due to the residual fatigue of the nervous system from the training methods used for their development.an Once the proper recovery intervals and reduction of volume is introduced, athletes and coaches can expect to see improvements in Power and Explosive Power Test results. Tests that prove to be great indicators of the Bio-Motor Abilities appropriate to all the strength/power/speed events (sprints, hurdles, jumps and throws) would include: 30m Sprint from standing or 3 pt. start, 30m Sprint w/Fly-in, 150m T.T. from standing start, Vertical Jump or Standing Long Jump, Counter Movement Jump, 5 second and 15 second Reactive Jumps. Obviously, there are some that are more appropriate for certain event groups. Throwers would not need a 150m T.T. but would benefit from improvements in starting speed (30m sprint from stand or 3 pt. start) and maximum speed (Flying 30m sprint). In addition, throwers would benefit from the longer Explosive Strength Endurance test involving Reactive Jumps over a the 15 second time test. However, all the tests would be beneficial for sprinters, hurdlers and jumpers. Use of the Vertical Jump, rather than the Standing Long Jump, can be more accurate as Vertical Jump testing is much easier for the athletes in all events to perform as has far fewer skill variables that go wrong. Once athletes have been tested, it should be easy to see the strengths and weaknesses of each athlete. This also gives each athlete a starting point and provides motivation to attack training in order to improve performances on the next testing period. Also, these tests can provide coaches with a good guide to planning training. As it has been said, “If you can’t test it, don’t train it!” Training methods designed to produce positive adaptations in Strength (Absolute Strength/Elastic Strength/Strength Endurance/Explosive Strength/Explosive Strength Endurance), Speed, Power, Speed Endurance, and Postural and Core Strength can be planned according to the specific needs of each athlete as determined by their testing results. Imbalances in strength should also be addressed in the Fall training period. Without fail, attention to teaching proper activation and development of the glutes will prove highly beneficial. Plans that contain Squats, Lunges, S.L. Squats, Split Squats, Hip Extension exercises, and Bridge exercises emphasizing glute activation and development are appropriate ways improving glute balance and strength necessary for proper performance of all the speed and power events. Throwers, (especially in high school where the implements are not as heavy as college) can gain great benefit from the same type of training as that for sprinters/jumpers with few variations. Strength work in the weight room might include more specific upper body lifts in addition to the Squats, Cleans/Pulls, Deadlifts and box hops that should be done by the sprint/hurdle/ jump athletes. Explosive Power through Med Ball Multi-Throw and Multi-Jump/Throw exercises should be implemented for all event groups with specific event Multi-Throw/Jump exercises determined by event group. For instance, throwers would benefit from South African Med Ball Push Tosses while sprinters/hurdlers and jumpers would benefit more from Over-Head Soccer Push Tosses . Regardless of event, all athletes need guidance on proper posture. Use of backpacks, constant texting, poor sitting mechanics, etc. can predispose athletes to postural strength deficiencies that can lead to injury and /or result in poor event mechanics due to inability to maintain proper posture. I would highly recommend that coaches read “The New Rules of Posture” by Mary Bond (Healing Arts Press, 2007). As advertised, this book is a great guide on how to Sit, Stand and Move in the Modern World. I can promise that improvements and emphasis on posture will produce improvements in all the event areas. In closing, I would suggest coaches looking for great drills and exercises for throwers to access the videos of Werner Gunthor that appear in the Video Clips section in the left column of this blog page. Great stuff. More on Fall training in the next blog. Enjoy the Olympics.